Breast Cancer: Molecular Mechanisms, Risk Factors, Diagnostic Advances, and Current Therapeutic Strategies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58222/vjq57z88Keywords:
Breast cancer; molecular mechanisms; risk factors; diagnostic biomarkers; targeted therapy; immunotherapy; precision medicine.Abstract
Breast cancer is a heterogeneous malignancy with diverse molecular alterations, multiple risk factors and variable clinical outcomes. This review provides a summary of recent evidence on the molecular mechanisms, risk factors, diagnostic approaches for breast cancer. Breast cancer is a consequence of the interaction of inherited genetic susceptibility, hormonal influences, genomic instability, epigenetic changes and dysregulation of signalling pathways such as estrogen receptor, HER2, PI3K–AKT–mTOR and cell-cycle regulatory pathways. The standard diagnostic methods are clinical examination, imaging, histopathological and immunohistochemical assessment of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, HER2 and Ki-67. Molecular testing can identify clinically relevant alterations that may guide treatment selection. Current treatment options include surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, endocrine therapy, HER2-directed agents, CDK4/6 inhibitors, PARP inhibitors, and antibody-drug conjugates. These advances notwithstanding, tumour heterogeneity, acquired treatment resistance, adverse effects, and disparities in access to modern cancer care remain important challenges. It is important to incorporate molecular mechanisms with clinical, pathological and diagnostic information for the improvement of breast cancer classification, risk assessment and selection of treatment.
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